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Computer Fundamentals (All in One )

Computer Fundamentals (All in One )


Definition of computer with block diagaram.

  • Computers are programmable, clock driven electronic devices that accept raw data facts and figure from user through input device, process it and generate meaningful information for user.
  • Computers are derived from Latin word computare which means to calcutate.
  • The father of compute is Charles Babbage.
  • The Nepali name of computer is Susankhya.
COMPUTER

Were,

C - Commonly

O - Operated/Operating

M - Machine

P - Particularly

U - Used

T - Educational

E - Educational

R - Research

Block Diagram

  • Computer work on the principle of Input Process Output (IPO) Cycle.
  1. Input Device: The devices used to feed data and instruction into the computer is called input device.
  2. CPU: CPU is the brain of computer. It is a device that performs all calculation inside the computer and coordinates and controls all the components of the computer system.
    1. CU
      • Stand for control Unit that controls and monitors all operations inside computer.
      • It Generate control signal by decoding instruction stored in instruction register that control flow of data, communicate between components and that signal represent various operation of computer.
      • It is called nerve of system.
    2. ALU
      • Stand for Arithmetic Logic Unit is considered as calculator portion inside processors that perform actual calculation.
      • It performs Mathematical as well as Logical calculation.
    3. Register
      • It is a very fast storage device inside CPU, so also called memory of CPU.
      • It is made of flip-flops and used to store date and instruction on that CPU is currently working.
    4. Memory Unit
      • It is composed of following memory:-
        1. Main memory
          • It is semiconductor memory used to store All Running application process, OS and data and instructions which is currently being used.
          • CPU can directly access main memory.
        2. Secondary memory
          • The non-volatile, permanent memory that hold data and information for future use.
          • CPU cannot access secondary memory directly.
  3. Output Unit
    • The unit of computers that delivers or represent processed data from computers to users in understandable forms.
    • The output from computers is either in form of soft copy or Hard copy.

History of computer system.

  • The history of computers forms the time when not any number of systems discovered and there was no device for calculation. When a man faces problem newer and newer devices were developed which has described below.
    1. Age of mechanical calculator
    2. Age of electromechanical Calculator/Computer
    3. Age of Electronic Computers
  1. Age of Mechanical Calculator
    1. Abacus
    2. Napier Bone
    3. Slide Rule
    4. Pascaline
    5. Leibniz’s Calculator
    6. Charles Babbage and His Analytical Engine
    7. Jacquard loom and punch card
    8. Tabulating machine
  1. Abacus
    • Early calculating device and believed that Chinese people developed about 300 B.C. ago.
    • Used to perform addition and subtraction.
    • Made up of wooden frames having 2 sections.
      • Heaven: - upper section contains 2 beads each value is 5.
      • Earth:- lower section contains 5 beads each value is
  2. Napier Bone
    • John napier develops a principle of logarithm in 1614 AD on the basis of it Napier Bone developed in 1617 AD.
    • Made up of strips, ivory bones or wood on which number was carved.
    • Allow to perform multiply and divide by placing bone on special constructed board.
  3. Slide Rule
    • Developed by William Oughtered in 1620 and based on idea of logarithm.
    • Made up of 2 scales, one slide over another and used for multiplication and division, not for addition and subtraction.
    • It is called the first Analog Device in world.
  4. Pascaline
    • Developed by Blaise Pascal in 1642 AD to assist his father in his work.
    • Ability to find addition and subtraction, not multiplication and division.
    • Believed that is the first Analog Calculator of the world.
  5. Leibniz’s Calculator
    • Also called Stepped Reckoner which was invented by German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz around 1673 AD and completed in 1694 AD.
    • Ability to perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and even square root.
  6. Jacquard Loom and Punch Card
    • The jacquard loom is a mechanical loom. One of the textile manufacturers called joseph Marie jacquard discovered a mechanism for automated weaving of clothes in 1801.
    • It was based    on the principle of the present and absence of some holes. On this principal punch card developed in 1894 AD. Joseph Marie Jacquard called the father of punch card.
  7. Charles Babbage and his Analytical Engine
    • Charles Babbage was a great mathematician at Cambridge university. He developed two electromechanical calculators called Difference Engine 1820 AD and Analytical Engine 1834 AD.
    • They were big achievements in the history of computers and calculator. It concepts all the components of the modern digital computer. It concepts all the components of the modern digital computer as follows:
      • The store (Equivalent to memory)
      • The mill (Equivalent to CPU)
      • The input (using punch card)
      • The Output (using punch Card)
    • So, Charles Babbage is known as the father of computer.
    • In 1840 AD Lady August Ada Lovelace suggest to Babbage that he use the binary number system. She wrote program for Analytical Engine.
  8. Tabulating Machine
    • Tabulating machine is invented by Dr. Herman Hollerith in 1890 AD.
    • It was developed to assist in summarizing information and accounting.
    • Herman Hollerith established a company called Tabulating company Recording co. It was later changed named IBM in 1923.
  1. Age of Electromechanical Calculator/Computer
    1. Z1
    2. Mark-I
    3. ABC
  1. Z1
    • The first programmable computer
    • Created by Konrad Zuze in Germany from 1936 to 1938.
    • To program the Z1 required that the insert punch tape in punch tape reader and all output was also generated through punch tape.
  2. Mark-1
    • Also called Harvard Mark-I or IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC).
    • Invented by Howard H.Aiken in 1937-1944 AD.
    • First electromechanical computer which had performed long series of Arithmetic & logical operation.
  3. ABC
    • Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) was the first digital electronic digital computer but was special purpose.
    • Had performed all calculation using electronic devices rather than ratchet wheel, mechanical switches.
    • Invented by Professor John Von Atonasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry art low state university between 1939-1942.
  1. Age of Electronic computers
    1. ENIAC
    2. John Von Neumann
    3. EDSAC
    4. EDVAC
    5. UNIAC OR UNIVAC
  1. ENIAC
    • Stand for Electronic Numerical Integrator and computer.
    • First general-purpose electronic computer, completed in 1946 AD.
    • Invented by JP Eckert and John Von muchly
    • Use decimal Number system for operation and can store up to 20 digits.
  2. John Von Neumann
    • He was a mathematician and in 1945 AD, he develops a principle of store program concept.
    • He gave ideas and developed Basic computer Architecture.
  3. EDSAC
    • Stand for Electronic Delay storage Automatic calculator was an early British computer inspired by John von Neumann.
    • First computer based on stored program concept. Developed by Maurice Wilkes in 1948 AD.
  4. EDVAC
    • Stand for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic computer, developed by JP Eckert and J Muchly in 1952 AD.
    • It uses Vacuum tube.
  5. UNIVAC
    • Stand for Universal Automatic computer.
    • Developed by JP Eckert and J muchly.
    • First commercial purpose computer.

History of computer or IT in Nepal.

  • The computer in Nepal is described below:-
    • 1930 AD (1986 BS)
      • Technical Training Institude was Eastablished under Tribhuvan University.
    • 1971 ( 2018 BS )
      • Facet calculator (not computer) is used for census calculation.
      • It took 6 years and 6 months census report of 96 Lakhs people.
    • 1971 AD ( 2028 BS )
      • IBM 1401, a second-generation computer was used for the census calculation on rent of RS. 1 lakh 25 thousand per month to process census data.
      • It took 1 year 7 months to calculate census report of 1 crore 12.5 lakhs people.
    • 1972 AD (2029 BS)
      • Technical Training Institute was reformed as Institude of Engineering.
    • 1974 AD (2031 BS)
      • A center for Yantrik Sralikaran (Electronic Data Processing center) was Established.
      • After 6 years it was reformed as Nation Computer center.
    • 1981 AD (2038 BS)
      • ICL 2950/10 a second Generation Mainframe computer having 64 terminal was brought in Nepal by the aid of UNDP and UNFPA from England for 20 lakhs US dollar. Now it is kept in museum of NCC in Singh durbar.
    • 1982 AD (2039 BS)
      • Microcomputers like: Apple, vector, Sirus were imported in the capital by private companies and individual.
      • From that time government sectors like agriculture, banking, universities also started to use microcomputers.
    • 1994 AD (2050 BS)
      • Mercantile Communication start first internet services in Nepal
    • 2006 AD (2063 BS)
      • Muni Bahadur Shakya made the first Supercomputer by compining 16 microcomputers.

Generation of Computers.

  • Generation in computer terminology is a change in the technology a computer is/was being used.
  • Initially the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But  nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software which together make up an entire computer system.
  • There is a total of 5 generations of computers kown to till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail along with their period and characteristics.

Generation

Date(AD)

Technologies

Inventor

First

1946 – 1956

Vacuum Tube

John Ambrose Fleming

Second

1956 – 1965

Transistor

William Shockley, John Barden, Water & House Brattain

Third

1965 - 1971

IC (Integrated Circuit)

Jack Kilby

Fourth

1971 – 1980

Microprocessor

Marcian Hoff (Ted Hoff) & Stanely Mazor

Fifth

1981 – onward

AI & BIO Chip

John mccarthly father of AI

First Generation
  • Technology/Device: Vacuum Tube
  • Language: Machine Level
  • Primary Memory: Magnetic Drum
  • Secondary Memory: Magnetic Tape
  • Speed: Mesured in millisecond (10-35)
  • Input/Outpur Devices: Punch Card and punch paper tape
  • Size: bulky
  • power: consume a lot of power
  • Example: IBM 650, ENIAC, EDVAC etc.
Vaccum Tube
Second Generation
  • Technology/Devices: Transistor
  • Language: Assembly Level
  • Primary Memory: Magnetic Core
  • Secondary Memory: Magnetic tape/Disk
  • Speed: Measured in Microsecond (10-6s)
  • Input/Outpur Devices: Punch Card and Punch paper tape
  • Size: Smaller than 1st generation
  • Power: consume Less power than 1st generation
  • Mainframe based system
  • Example: IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, etc.
Transistor
Third Generation
  • Technology/Device: IC
  • Language: High level Language
  • Primary Memory: Magnetic Core as well as Semiconductor memory (RAM, ROM)
  • Secondary Memory: Magnetic Tape / Magnetic Disk
  • Input/Output Devices: Keyboard, Monitor, Printer
  • Size: Smaller than the 2nd generation
  • Power: consume less power than 2nd generation 
  • Minicomputer-based system
  • Opertaing system used for the first time.
  • Example: IBM 360 Series, Honeywell-6000 Series, PDP, IBM 370/168 etc.
Integrated Circuit
Fourth Generation
  • Technology/Devices: Microprocssor
  • Language: High level language
  • Primary Memory: Semiconductor memory (RAM, ROM0
  • Secondary Memory: Magnatic Disk, Optical Disk, Solid State Drive, etc
  • Speed: measured in Picoseconds (10-12s)
  • Input/Output Devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Printer, Speaker, Monitor, Projector, ect
  • Size: Smaller than 3rd generation
  • Power: consume less power than 3rd generation
  • Fully GUI based
  • Variety of software can run
  • Concept of Network used
  • Parallel and pipelining processing machanisms are used for faster exection of instructions.
  • Example: Laptop, Palmtop, desktop, Smart phone, etc.
Microprocessor
Fifth Generation
  • This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) Software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net, etc. are used in this generation.
BIO Chip
AI include:
  • Robotics
  • Neural networks
  • Game Playing
  • Development of expert systems to make decision in real life situations.
  • Natural language understanding and generation.
The main features of fifth generation are:
  • ULSI technology and BIO chips
  • Development of true artificial intelligence
    • Development of Natural Language Processing
    • Advancement in Parallel Processing
    • Advancement in Superconductor technology
    • More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
    • Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
  • Speed measured in femtosecond (10-15S)

  • Some computer types of this generation are: Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Ultra Book, Chrome Book.

Characteristics / Advantage and Disadvantage of Computer system.

Major characteristics of computers are as follows:
  1. Accuracy
    • Computers perform a calculation with 100% accuracy.
    • Computers never give false result if we feed correct instruction and data on computers.
    • Sometime a computer may produce wrong output because of wrong input; this is called GIGO (Garbage in Garbage Out)
    • Sometimes due to faults in device or program, the result may not be accurate. This is called Bug or Glitch.
  2. Speed
    • Computers perform millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
    • Modern computers are very fast and perform thousands of tasks in a second fraction.
    • The speed of computers is also measured in GHZ, MHZ, etc.
  3. Diligence
    • Unlike human begins, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration.
    • It can work continuosly without any error and boredom.
    • It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.
  4. Versatility
    • A computer is a very versatile machine.
    • A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
    • This machine can be used to solve problems related to various fields.
    • At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card game.
  5. Reliability
    • A computer is a reliable machine.
    • Modern electronic components have long lives.
    • Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
  6. Automation
    • Computers are automatic machines.
    • Automation means the ability to perform the given task automatically.
    • Once a program is given to computer i.e. Stored in computer memory, the program and instruction can control the program exection without human interaction.
  7. Storage
    • Computers can store large amounts of data. Bit is a small unit of data storage of computer.
      • Bit- 1 or 0
      • Nibble - 4 bit
      • Byte - 8 bit
    • Word - 16 bit or depend on CPU word length
      • KB - 1024 byte
      • MB - 1024 KB
      • GB - 1024 MB
      • TB - 1024 GB
      • PB - 1021 TB
Disadvantages of Computers
The Disadvantage of computer are as follows:-
  1. Unemployment
    • Due to advancement of AI and Machine learning computers behave like human beings and performs task automatically without human beings, so it reduces employment.
  2. Dependency
    • It makes people depend on it; people depend on computer even to perform simple task. It will reduce skill and make people lazy.
  3. Health issue
    • Working on a computer screen for long time causes several physical health issues, such as back pain, eye strain, headache, carpal tunnel syndrome and other issues.
  4. Threat and privacy risk
    • Computer software and networks are vulnerable to security breaches that cause leaks of personal data, financial data and other, various types of attack or other thereats.
  5. Cyber Crime
    • Using computer and internet technologies cybercrime is spreading gradually.
  6. Environmental Impact
    • Computer manufacturing and disposal can lead to toxic substances being released into the environment, leading to pollution and other enviromental issues.

Limitation of computer system.

These are Limitation of computer system
  1. Limited Creativity
    • Comuters cannot think of outside boxes or come up with innovative solutions that have not been pre-programmed.
  2. Lack of emotion
    • Computers cannot understand the feelings and emotions of human beings as human beings can do.
  3. Lack of Language Limitation
    • In today's scenario, the computer can understand and interpret a limited language as human beings can do.
  4. No I.Q.
    • A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
    • Each instruction must be given to computer.
    • A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Classification of Computer.

Based on operation/working principle
  1. Analog computer
    • Analog computer is a type of computer that operates on physical phenomenon i.e. Natural values like speed, voltage, current, temperature, pressure, etc.
    • It works on the principle of measuring rather than counting. It handles the continuous varying signal.
    • They process analog data and store them in the form of physical quantities.
    • The accuracy of analog computer is low.
    • They are special purpose.
    • The accuracy of analog computer is presented in oscilloscope.
  2. Digital Computer
    • The computer which works on digital valuse i.e. Binary digit 0 and 1 is called digital computer.
    • They store digital data i.e. Discreate from of data.
    • They work by conuting digits.
    • They are versatile.
  3. Hybrid Computer
    • A hybrid computer is a type of computer that offers the functionlity of both a digital 

Difference between Analog and Digital computers.

Parameter

Analog Computer

Digital Computer

Definition

 The computer which is based on continuous data is called analog computer.

Computer which is based on discrete data is called digital computer.

System

It is measuring system.

It is counting system.

Measure

It measures physical value i.e. current, speed, voltage, etc.

It measures digit i.e. 0 and 1.

Used

It is used for special purpose.

It is used for general purpose.

Accuracy

It has low accuracy.

It has high accuracy.

Storage

Has no memory or less memory.

Has high memory.

Speed

They are slower than digital.

They are faster than analog

Signal

Signal is represented in form of curve

Signal is represented in form of pulse.

Wave

Sinusoidal wave

Square wave

Example

Seismograph, Thermometer

Desktop, palmtop, laptop














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